Related questions:
- Discuss any two of the branches of philosophy.
(YOUR INTRODUCTION)
PHILOSOPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
Philosophy entails an endless logical and rational search for answers to questions. Philosophy is extremely wide because it entails several branches and sub-branches and so it cannot actually have one conception as various classes of philosophers define philosophy based on their area of specialization. Some basic qualities of philosophy are;
· It entails endless and infinite searches for answers to questions.
· It is purely rational and logical i.e. not having any race trace of the supernatural.
· Questions in philosophy are concerned only with the general or universal” and not of the “particular or specific”.
· Philosophy happens when “man” starts to reflect on their experiences both “inner” i.e. inside their personal world and “outer” i.e. the reality that happens around him.
· It is purely rational and logical i.e. not having any race trace of the supernatural.
· Questions in philosophy are concerned only with the general or universal” and not of the “particular or specific”.
· Philosophy happens when “man” starts to reflect on their experiences both “inner” i.e. inside their personal world and “outer” i.e. the reality that happens around him.
THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy as the love of wisdom and as a universal discipline has branches. The major arms of the philosophical enterprise are five in number, as there are four branches and one speculative tool. They are thus highlighted;
i. Metaphysics
ii. Epistemology
iii. Ethics
iv. Logic (a tool)
v. The infrastructure of disciplines
METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics can be defined as the study of “ultimate reality” in all ramifications. Its etymology as a word was coined from the Greek phrase “meta-ta-physika” meaning “beyond the physical”; and it was done by "Andronicus of Rhodes"- a student of Aristotle. Metaphysics is further subdivided into three arms, which are;
· Ontology- the study of being (being qua being)
· Cosmology- the study of the nature of the universe
· Cosmogony- the study of the origin of the universe
Furthermore, metaphysics has two major schools of thought, which are;
· Idealism
This school postulates that reality is intrinsically ideal, spiritual, abstract, and the likes. Philosophers of this school are called “idealists”; e.g. - Parmenides.
· Materialism
This school postulates that reality is intrinsically material, physical, concrete, and the likes. Philosophers of this school are called “materialists”; e.g. - Democritus.
In addition, there are the concepts of “being metaphysical” “being a metaphysician”; as well as “traditional metaphysical thinking”.
· Being metaphysical
One is said to be “metaphysical” when one examines the past, analyses the present and uses such idea to speculate or predict the future. This is basically a function of rationality and since "man" is a rational being, all men are said to have the capacity to be “metaphysical”.
· Being a Metaphysician
A metaphysician is a philosopher who adopts either the idealist or materialist orientation, and then uses it to express his views about the universe. For example, Hegel is a metaphysician of the idealist orientation while Karl Marx is a metaphysician of the materialist orientation.
· Traditional metaphysical thinking
This is when one upholds a thought frame of mind that is rigid, firm, inflexible, dogmatic and unchanging. It is the kind of thinking that is analogous with faith, religion and culture. Also, it is usually based on prejudice. However, a school of thought known as "phenomenology" is said to be the best solution to the problem of “traditional metaphysical thinking”. Phenomenology presupposes and proposes the idea that things should be allowed to happen spontaneously, naturally and unmechanically.
EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology can be defined as a critical evaluation of all our claims to knowledge. It is the thorough study of knowledge and truth in all ramifications. Etymologically, it was coined from the two Greek words “episteme” meaning “knowledge”, and “logos” which means “theory”. Thus, they together merge to translate as "theory of knowledge"- the etymology of epistemology. Epistemology has two main schools of thought which are;
· Rationalism
This school postulates that knowledge is acquired via reasoning (the mind) alone. Hence, it upholds “a priori knowledge”- knowledge via reasoning and perception by the mind as the standard form of knowledge. Philosophers of this school are called “rationalists”; e.g. - Plato.
· Empiricism
This school postulates that knowledge is the product of the senses (five senses) alone. Thus, it upholds “empirical knowledge” and “a posteriori knowledge”- knowledge obtained through sense perception and experience respectively as the ideal form of knowledge. Philosophers of this school are called “empiricists”; e.g. - Aristotle.
Also, there are some other schools of thought in epistemology like;
· Scepticism
This school of thought plays a very major role in the advancement of epistemology due to its nature and vocation. Scepticism postulates that nothing can be known at all, and knowledge is impossibility. The two brands of scepticism are; “universal scepticism”- knowledge is impossible; and “mitigated scepticism”- knowledge is partially possible. Philosophers of this school are called “sceptics”; e.g. - Gorgias, Pyrrho e.t.c.
· Relativism
This school of thought says that knowledge is a function of the individual; and that the individual is the standard for knowledge. Philosophers of this school are called “relativists”. For example; Protagoras whom postulated the philosophical dictum “homo mensura” meaning, man is the measure (determinant) of all things.
In addition, we have some important concepts that matter a lot in epistemology, such as;
· Universals
This represents the essences and intrinsic nature of beings which are general and objective of their particular individual members. There are three brands of universals, which are; exaggerated realism, moderate realism and nominalism.
· Abstraction
This is the mental act of stripping individual and particular beings of their specific traits and then extracting their essences (universals).
ETHICS
Ethics which is also known as moral philosophy is a normative and prescriptive discipline which is concerned with the justification of the principles of morality. This is because it is concerned with what "ought" to be the case as regards the implementation of morality and its codes. Ethics has several definitions, but the most accepted one is, ethics is,” the normative science of human conduct”. Its etymology is gotten from the Greek words “Ethika”- morals; and “Ethos”- custom. Ethics has two main branches, which are highlighted thus;
· Meta-Ethics
This is the branch of ethics which deals with the analysis and clarification of ethical terms such as “good”, “bad”, “virtue”, “vice”, “justice” and so on. The major challenge in meta-ethics is the question of "how do we come to know a good or bad action"? In this regard, four meta-ethical theories have sprung up in order to solve this problem, which are; Naturalism, Anti-naturalism, Emotivism, Prescriptivism.
· Normative ethics
This branch of ethics is at its very core. This is because it basically deals with the norms, principles and standards of human behaviour. The major challenge in normative ethics, is the question of, "what is the moral standard"? In this regard, eight platforms which are assumed to be the solution (the moral standard), whether individually or collectively, have been proposed, they are; Social custom, Law, Revelation, Conscience, Pleasure, Universalizability, Intuition, Right Reason.
Furthermore, ethics has several schools of thought and concepts. However, only a few would be highlighted, thus;
· Utilitarianism
This ethical school of thought advocates the dictum of “the greatest happiness for the greatest number”. Hence, for something to be seen as morally good, it must be in favour and benefit of the largest number of people. E.g. if a mall has been hijacked by an armed man, and all it takes to save the people is a face to face struggle by a judo black belter; the judoka must do it even if it means that he would die alongside the hijacker. At least everyone, except him, would be saved. The proponents of this school are “Jeremy Bentham” and “John Stuart Mill”.
· Hedonism
This ethical school of thought advocates “pleasure” as the moral standard. Hence, any and everything which gives pleasure is morally good. In simpler words, actions that would inadvertently lead to pain are morally bad while those that would give pleasure in the long run are morally good. “Epicurus” is a proponent of this school.
· Egoism
This ethical school of thought says that every action which is perpetuated by man is done out of selfish desires. Hence, anything done by man is done, due to the fact that he knows that he is going to benefit from it either directly or indirectly in the future.
· Intuitionism
This ethical school of thought postulates that moral goodness cannot be explained, but only can be recognised in things and it is through “intuition” that we can recognise moral goodness. A proponent of this school is George Edward Moore.
(YOUR PERSONAL ADDITIONAL INFORMATION AND CONCLUSION)
